The Monumental Architecture of India’s Golden Triangle
The Golden Triangle is a nickname for the tour circuit of Delhi, Agra, and Jaipur. These three cities form the epicenter of Mughal architecture, the surprisingly fruitful encounter between a pair of seemingly-incompatible faiths and radically different building traditions. From to the world’s tallest brick minaret to the the Taj Mahal to the palaces of the Pink City, the Golden Triangle boasts some of the world’s most famous buildings.
With a bit of foresight, the Golden Triangle can be a captivating experience; for the uninitiated, it can come as a shock. Unfortunately many tours jump from one big-name site to the next, with horn-filled stretches of frantic travel between them. Too often, overwhelmed visitors wind up with a negative impression of India. While Jaipur, Agra, and especially Delhi are massive cities with serious air-quality issues, they all have quieter areas with profuse greenery and relative calm.
We spent eight days in the Golden Triangle, which required some prioritizing. The sheer variety of potential sights allowed us to focus on balance: we mixed larger and smaller places, the famous and the not-so-famous, and as many different types of architecture as possible. In this post, we cover the highlights of our stay. All sites are marked on our Google map.
Delhi: Qtub Minar, Humayun’s Tomb, Jama Masjid, Lotus Temple, Lodhi Gardens
Agra: Taj Mahal, Tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah (“Baby Taj”), Akbar’s Tomb, Agra Fort
Between Agra & Jaipur: Fatehpur Sikri, Chand Baori
Jaipur: Hawa Mahal, Jantar Mantar, City Palace, Amer Fort
History
Most of the Golden Triangle monuments date from the 12th to the 17th centuries. Islam appeared on the subcontinent in the late eighth century, but it would be 400 years before Muslims managed to gain a foothold, with fierce resistance continuing for another three centuries.
The Mughal Empire began with a prince who swept down from Afghanistan to conquer bickering factions in northwestern India. Babur and his descendants expanded the empire and spearheaded a period of fabulous wealth and cultural growth. Gold found in new European colonies made its way to Mughal-controlled markets, funding marble buildings including the Taj Mahal.
Delhi
Delhi encompasses seven cities in one as successive civilizations shifted around or simply built on top of one another. Long associated with the city of Indraprastha in the ancient epic Mahabharata, Delhi is a symbol of India itself and the modern nation’s center of government. Many visitors get snarled in Old Delhi (built under Mughal emperor Shah Jahan) and New Delhi (built under British rule), so we kept our visits brief. This allowed us to spend more time in southern Delhi, which offers a huge range of sites and a less frenetic atmosphere.
Qtub Minar Complex
The UNESCO-listed Qtub Minar complex encompasses multiple mosques, mausoleums, and gateways in various states of survival. Standing at nearly 240 feet (over 72 meters), the tapering tower of a minaret (minar) alone is worth the trip. Above massive calligraphic inscriptions, balconies poised on crystalline muqarnas vaulting break up stretches of deeply-fluted red sandstone and dramatic shadows.
The site’s history can feel unsetting. After centuries of thwarted attempts, a Mamluk general finally established India’s first Muslim-controlled territory in 1192 – and promptly set about constructing a mosque and victory tower. 27 Hindu and Jain temples were torn down, with their parts re-used as building materials. Local masons had to contend with an unfamiliar design: without any experience of engineering arches, they simply copied the look with brackets.
As the Delhi Sultanate grew, successive rulers imported artisans from the west to implement Islamic structures. They created India’s first true arches and domes, and laid the foundations for the subcontinent’s unique style of architecture. For instance, the red stone inlaid with white marble borders so typical of Mughal structures had appeared here by 1311.
Humayun’s Tomb & Environs
All the hallmarks of Mughal architecture came together for the first time in Humayun’s Tomb. Compared to the smaller tombs nearby built at roughly the same time, the second emperor’s mausoleum demonstrates a cohesive new style. First and foremost, the setting: not just any garden, but the charbagh (Paradise Garden) promoted so passionately by Humayun’s father Babur. Originally developed in Persia, the charbagh uses a pair of intersecting waterways to evoke the rivers of Paradise, and the symbolism resonated deeply with Muslims. Here the tomb sits right over the crossing, in a double-height space lit by screens in the direction of Mecca. The actual grave lies in a chamber directly below the cenotaph, since Islam forbids elaborate ornamentation on burials.
The structure was commissioned and paid for after his death by his wife and chief consort Bega (Haji) Begum, who also selected the architect. Her remains, along with those of more than 100 Mughal family members, are also buried in the complex. The site was chosen at least partially for its proximity to the mausoleum of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, who is still revered today.
Humayun’s Tomb suffered during the Mughal Empire’s decline. An 1882 report mentioned the gardens being rented to cabbage and tobacco farmers, and the site was also used as a refugee camp during the 1947 Partition. UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 1993, prompting a major restoration.
Emperor Humayun’s barber got his own tomb on the property.
Multiple smaller mausoleums on the property and in the vicinity honor contemporaries of Humayun, including one dedicated to his barber. Since anyone allowed to approach the emperor with a razor had to be trustworthy, barbers often doubled as close confidants.
Jama Masjid
Having visited the much-better-preserved fort in Agra, we bypassed its counterpart in Delhi and headed directly for the Jama Masjid.
Raised on a plinth on a hill overlooking the city, India’s largest mosque feels a world apart from its chaotic surroundings. Part center of worship, part political symbol, and part tourist site, the Jama Masjid is often cited as Delhi’s most beautiful building. Built from 1644-56 under Shah Jahan, the design has more stripes and fewer flowers than the Taj Mahal. Everything gets a crisp outline, from floor patterns shaped like prayer mats to the ribs of the bulbous domes.
The mosque incorporates a huge courtyard surrounded by arcades, gateways, and domes. The setup allows 25,000 people to pray together; the name Jama derives from Jummah, the community-wide Muslim prayer every Friday.
Lotus Temple
Rounding out the Golden Triangle’s architectural fusion of faiths is the immensely popular Bahá’í House of Worship, a.k.a. the Lotus Temple. Iranian architect Fariborz Sahba spent nearly a decade touring India and studying its architecture in preparation for designing the structure. He found inspiration in the highly-symbolic lotus, here rendered in three monumental sets of white marble petals. Shallow pools around the structure mimic the flower’s leaves and create a sense that it floats. They also create cooling ventilation inside, a trick often found in pre-modern Indian architecture.
The Bahá’í faith specifies a nine-sided shape for its temples, with “no pulpits or altars, and no pictures, icons, or statues” on the inside. It welcomes members of any and all beliefs – and lines to enter can wind through the entire surrounding gardens.
Lodhi Gardens
Today the upscale neighborhood near Khan Market is completely developed, but a century ago it lay outside the city proper. The British created the park in 1936 by clearing the area around some historic early-Muslim structures south of New Delhi. Set among lush plants and chirping birds, the old mosques and mausoleums – once symbols of a brutal period in regional history – take on an idyllic aspect. The structures now seem like evidence of India’s diversity – especially surrounded by yoga groups and picnicking families.
The first three centuries of Muslim rule saw a series of short-lived dynasties attempting to suppress other faiths. Leaders didn’t have the political or economic clout to build on the scale of Mughal-era monuments, although they did introduce a number of influential innovations. Built with rubble and mortar, the 1494 Bara Gumbad (Big Dome) features separate interior and exterior shells. The Tomb of Sikhandar Lodhi was the first on the subcontinent to include landscaping. Many of these structures retain remarkable carved plasterwork.
Agra
Today the world’s Most Romantic Building sits in a fairly unglamorous city. Modern Agra makes a somewhat incongruous setting for the many major Mughal marvels, but a day trip is just not enough.
Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan’s mausoleum for his favorite wife Mumtaz, is generally considered the apogee of Mughal architecture. Elegant lines and perfect proportions keep the extravagant materials from feeling excessive or gaudy. Up close, details emerge: complex inlays of richly-colored stone, or delicate floral shapes carved into sparkling white marble. The only inharmonious note for us was the addition of the Shah’s larger sarcophagus next to that of his wife, disrupting the symmetry.
Much of the building’s impact comes from the overall site layout. At first, the gardens appear to follow a traditional four-part plan, with monumental gateways and a mosque surrounding the mausoleum. Beyond the tomb, however, a large river interrupts the gardens, echoing the ending of Mumtaz’s life. Even more remarkably, a second configuration can be seen from above: the river itself serves as the cross-axis of the charbagh layout. A second set of gardens on the other shore mirrors the ones in front of the Taj Mahal to complete the symmetry. On clear days the Mehtab Bagh, or Moonlight Gardens, provide a prime viewpoint of the true “front” of the mausoleum.
Tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah (“Baby Taj”)
Nur Jahan, the remarkable wife and co-ruler of Jahangir, built this innovative double mausoleum for her parents in the 1620’s. (Her father I’timad ud-Daula served as grand wazir to the emperor for decades.) The nickname “Baby Taj” is ironic given how profoundly the structure influenced the Taj Mahal, particularly the all-marble construction.
The empress developed Mughal tomb designs by adding platforms and terraces to the charbagh (paradise garden) layout. She also added Persian motifs reflecting her heritage, such as a preponderance of red flowers symbolizing pain and death, which later Mughals adopted.
Akbar’s Tomb (Sikandra)
Emperor Akbar was a singular character, so it’s appropriate that his tomb is different from anyone else’s. Instead of a dome in the middle, his has a tapering stack of four tiers reminiscent of the Panch Mahal in his city of Fatehpur Sikri. His son Jahangir, the fourth emperor, also added corner minarets for the first time on a mausoleum.
Exuberant, colorful designs provide a welcome contrast to the more melancholy Taj Mahal – not to mention a significant lack of crowds. Besides an excited group of schoolgirls and some monkeys basking in the sun, we had the place to ourselves.
Agra Fort
Agra Fort is mostly the product of the two greatest builders of the Mughal Empire: Akbar and Shah Jahan. Delhi Sultan Sikhander Lodhi had shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra but didn’t have time to adapt its existing fort before being conquered by the Mughals.
Akbar rebuilt the site on a monumental scale, with an eye to both grandeur and security. For instance a 90-degree turn between gates prevented charging elephants from crashing through them. Newly-conquered territories Bengal and Gujarat provided fresh architectural inspiration, in the form of swooping roofs and sinuous brackets.
Shah Jahan remodeled much of the interior, replacing sandstone with white marble. Some of the loveliest rooms were built for his beloved Mumtaz Mahal; legend says that when his son imprisoned him in the fort later on, Shah Jahan would gaze out at her tomb from these apartments.
Between Agra and Jaipur
Fatehpur Sikri
Fatehpur Sikri means City of Victory, but City of Mystery might be more accurate. Scholars continue to debate why Akbar decided to build this new capital 35 km outside of Agra – and why he abandoned it after just 14 years. Many of the buildings can’t be easily identified, but one space is so unique it could never be mistaken for anything else. Akbar’s Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) models the cosmos, with the emperor at the top of a pillar with myriad brackets. Outside, he enjoyed having courtesans and occasionally vassals serve as playing pieces on a giant pachisi board.
Fatehpur Sikri appears to have been modeled on the traveling camps emperors used to tour their territories. As one moves in from the entrance, spaces become increasingly private. Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to require women to be sequestered, and his enormous harem was set well within the city, under heavy guard.
Most of Fatehpur Sikri lies within a ticketed area, serene and uncrowded. Nearby, numerous touts cluster around the Jama Masjid courtyard. It’s worth the hassle to witness one of the region’s most beautiful mosques, the monumental Buland Darwaza gateway, and the white mausoleum of Sufi saint Salim Chishti.
Chand Baori
One of India’s most striking sights is the stepwell, which collects vital rainfall in an inverted pyramid shape. In Rajasthan and the neighboring state of Gujarat, communal wells needed steep walls to avoid excess evaporation on the surface. Stairs criss-cross down the sides in order to make the slopes more manageable. The narrow, rail-less descent incorporated ritual worship at shrines carved into the stone. Upper sections of the baori served as gathering spots, particularly for women doing the washing.
At 13 stories deep, Chand Baori is the largest of its kind, as well as one of the oldest. It’s also a rare chance to compare early Hindu and later Muslim designs in a single well. Chand Baori’s lower levels date to the eighth century, although much of the original adjoining temple was destroyed later. Mughals turned the structure into a private palace in the 18th century, adding the upper levels and an arcade to screen off the surroundings.
Jaipur
At the intersection of Rajasthan and the Golden Triangle, the Pink City is a living fantasy and modern-day shopping mecca. Ancient Sanskrit manuals guided the layout; today the streets are ruled by smartphones as much as cows.
Old City: Hawa Mahal, Jantar Mantar, City Palace
One of India’s most photographed buildings, the Hawa Mahal features 953 windows on a single facade. Most of the structure is only one room deep, with screened openings designed to provide royal women with a view outside their zenana, or harem. These openings allow cool air to circulate freely, hence the name Palace of the Winds.
The opulent City Palace features a photogenic open-air pavilion as well as the celebrated Pritam Niwas Chowk, a courtyard with four elaborate gateways representing Hindu deities and the four seasons. Nearby the UNESCO-listed Jantar Mantar Observatory completes the trio of major sites in the Old City.
Amer Fort
Amer (or Amber) Palace, the royal residence within the UNESCO-listed fort, is considered one of the greatest fusions of Hindu and Islamic architecture. The conquering Mughals mixed new designs like layered arches and vaulted ceilings with regional traditions such as elephant brackets and tiered towers.
Practicalities
In Delhi, we discovered an efficient metro system complete with helpful staff. Unfortunately Agra and Jaipur don’t offer anything comparable, so we opted to hire a car and driver instead of negotiating multiple tuk-tuk rides. One of our best decisions was to find an experienced travel company in India. TGS Tours provided our excellent driver as well as assistance with our itinerary and hotel bookings. The trip could not have gone more smoothly, and the price was less than most packaged tours. (Please note that this is not a sponsored endorsement.)
Further Reading
William Dalrymple’s classic City of Djinns weaves wry observations of contemporary life with a primer on both ancient and modern history in India.
For more on India, see our posts on Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, and the architecture of Rajasthan.